ページ1:

Introduction.
Scientific Method.
observation
觀察
hypothesis
is a tentative
explanation for a
set of observation.
representation
kit
Jaw
is a concise State
Interpretation.
theory
解釋闡述
is a unifying principle
ment of a relationship that explains facts
between phenomenon that
is always same under
the same condition.
or lows are based
oh them
classifications of Matter
Substances 純物質
separation by
physical methods
Mixtures 混合物,
Homogeneous
Heterogeneous 非均相.
Compounds 17, separation by
Elements
647 Uhemical methods.
Most abundant element in Earth.
Oxygen > Silicon > Aluminum > Iron > Calcium Magnesium.
0₤45.5% 58727.2% A1228.3% Fel ca
Mg鎂
Carbon > Hydrogen > Nitrogen > Calcium > Phosphorus.
Is Most abundant element in humen body.
Oxygen >
Types of Changes
NO
P磷
1. Physical and Chemical Change.
內含性質
Extensive Properties.
2、
depends upon
how much matters.
and size of system.
會隨系統大小/內容多寡改变
*
have additivity.
eig. mass, length. volume, energy.
外延性質
Intensive Properties.
does not depends upon matters.
and size of
system.
☆尺度不變的物理量.
eig. temperture, density, color.
pressure. mp/p..
Double A

ページ2:

Measurement.
1. SI units=
Length meter (m)
Mass kilogram
(kg)
ampere
(A)
Time second(s)
Electrical current
Temperture kelvin (k)
Amount of substance mole (mo)
Luminous intensity
Candela (cd)
2. Common measuring devices.
Buret 滴定管
Pipet移液管
Graduated cylinder.
Volumetric flask 1.
Handling Numbers
人
Scientific Notation
2. Significant figures
→
Any digital that is not zero is significant. (1,234kg 912/91/2)
Zeros between nonzero and significant (606h 322)
Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are hot significant
(前缀零)
Zeros to the right of the first nonzero digit.
contain decimal points significant
:
:
don't contain decimal points may or may not significant
好有效數字的運算
Addition/Subtraction =
完成運算後後取位數小的
為有效,四捨五入.
Multiplication/Division
完成計算後四捨五入取與測
量值最小精度值相同的有效
1£$2.
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ページ3:

3. Accuracy and Precision 準確度與精密度.
Accuracy 準確度
how close a measurement is to the
Precision精密度.
how closely some measurement
true value of the quantity that of the same quantity agree
with
was measured.
good accuracy &
another.
good precision+
Double A

ページ4:

The Atomic Theory.
Atoms. Molecules. ions.
Dalton's atomic theory
2. All atoms of
1. Elements are composed of extremely small particals, called atomic.
given
element are identical, having the same size,
mass, and chemical properties. The atoms of one element are
different from the others.
3. Componds are composed of atoms of more than one element.
In any componds, the ratio (tt) of the numbers of atoms of
any two of the elements present is either an integer.
or simple fraction.簡單分數.
4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination or.
rearrangement (31); it dosen't result in their creation
or destruction
The Structure of the Atom-
Electron 電子
1.發現: cathode ray tube
陰極射線管。
cathode ray negatively
charged particles.
2. J.J. Thomson
Et -1.76×108c/g
3. R.A. Millikan
(charge of electron) =
proton
Thomson's plum pudding
2.Rutherford 拉塞福.
& particles scattered and
actually bounded back.
Structure would allow most
& particles to pass through
the gold foil. proposed their
have dense central core
with atom nucleus.
-1.6022x103 mass: 1.67262× 10-24 g
charge
Charge/mass
=
9.10×10289.
(約為蚪的1840倍).
(原子核大小約5×10-3pm)
Neutron 中子.
1.當時理論上HeH質量=
2:1,但实際卻是4:1
2. Chadwick
a particles
the
beryllium
18 rays,
金皮
Yays
considered of
proton.
electrically neutral 1
mass greater
than
hamed them neutrons.
3. mass: 1.67493 x 10-24
Double A

ページ5:

Atomic Number, Mass number and Isotopes.
1. Atomic Number (z)
2. Mass Number (A)
= number of protons.
=
(2) number of protons + neutrons.
mass humber
←
AX
✓
atomic number
3. Isotopes 1. Atoms that have the same atomic number but
The Periodic Table
週期: period
'
1½ group family
different mass.
:
Aakail metals.
Alkaline Earth Metals.
:
halogens.
:
hoble (rare) gases.
Molecules and Ions."
1. Molecules.
[
• atoms held together by chemical forces. (chemical bonds).
compound, can make up of two or more elements.
hot necessary a
21 Ions.
an atom
or a group of atoms that has a net positive or negative
monatomic ions 單原子離子。
Polyatomic ions 多原子離子。
Chemical Formulas.
人
- 1/5 Molecular Formulas.
charge.
molecular models 17.
(Ball-and-stick/space-filling)
↓
原子大小與球不成比例
Expirical Formulas.
2. Formula of Ionic Compounds.
usually same as their empirical formulas.
the charges
on the cation, anion are not shown in the formula.
formula is electrically neutral

ページ6:

Naming Compounds.
1. Ionic Compounds 離子化合物.
element:
陽離子
+ ion/cation
元素名稱
陰離子:-ide.
-binary compounds.二元化合物:
+
陽離子陰離子+-ide.
ternary compounds.三元化合物
:
+
+ -ide.
金屬形成了种以上陽離子:用羅馬數字表示
陽離子 anion groups
+(Roman humerals)+
+-ide
陽離子
陰離子
2. Molecular Compounds分子化合勿
- 11/11/12 + -ide
人
-表達數量的前缀.
(若為氧化物則前做尾
端的省略.
I mono-
。 hexa-
2
di-
3 tri-
y tetra-
5 penta-
7 hepta-
8 octa-
9 hona-
-10 deca-
.若合物中含H常使用非正式,無具体顯示數量的名稱。
eg. CH4 Methane
SiH4:
Silane
NH3: Ammonia
PH3 Phosphine
H2s:Hydrogen sulfide
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ページ7:

3. Acids and Bases
①Acids.
Acids
hydro-
-ic acid
Oxo acids
-ic acid
Oxoacids
eg. F: fluoride
per-
-ic acid
HF: hydrofluoric acid
per-
含氧酸根离雛子.
Oxoanion
ate
過
酸
*食的含氧酸.
ic acid
-ate
HC104 过氯酸
C104
Perchloric acid
perchlorate
-ous acid
-ite
HC103
chloric acid
0105
chlorate
E
酸
HClO2亞氯酸
chlorous acid
0102
chlorite
hypo ou
-ous acid
hypo-ite
Hclo 次氯酸
次
酸
CIO
hypochlorous acid
→ Bases
hypochlorite
-普通分子化合物結尾加-ide.
[NH3: Ammonia
③ Hydrates 水合牛刀
-have a
川
specific number of water molecules attached to them.
在化合物後加上
hydrate.
Double A

ページ8:

Stoichiometry
化学计量学
1.Atomic Mass 原子量.
國際協定原子量 atomic mass is the mass of the atom
atomic mass units (amu)
=
1amu
=
1/2 mass of one 12C ("C 67+ = 12 amu)
ih
平均原子量 Average Atomic Mass.
→自然中原子所有同位素的平均質量.
2、Molar Mass 莫耳質量
· 1 mole (mol) = 12g "C thε 67 1 7 12 8. - # 4 1 mole "C atoms = 6,022 X 10th atoms
亞佛加厥數 Avogadro's number =6,022x1023
(NA)
3.Molecular mass. 分子量.
→ Is the sum of the atomic masses in the molecule. (amu)
△對於離子化合物改用formula mass. (the mass of ohe formula)
4、The Mass Spectrometer 質譜儀.
-利用肉位子荷質比分析同位素成分、有機物構造、元素成分,氣相有位子豐富度.
.元素在樣本中含量愈高,顯現度愈強.
①高能一撞擊分子使分子
e
中电子多出→陽離子
離子穿過帶電
①通過前鐵
板時加速
->
後偏轉,半空取決於荷質比.
(荷質比小(質量大)偏轉輻度小)
ion beam
eletron
light
beam
heavy
gas
acclerating
plates.
maghet
Double A

ページ9:

5. Reaction Yield
Yeild (%) =
Actual Yield
×100%.
Theoretial Yield
Double A

ページ10:

The electronic structure of atoms.
1. Planck's Quantum Theory 普郎克量子理論
.古典物理假設原/分子可以發射,吸收任意數量的輻射能.
-普克假設原/分子只能吸收發射離散的能量.
-稱可以以电磁輻射形式收發的最小能量: 量子quantum
E=hU=h (hab143×10-09J)
能量always 以E的整數倍發射.
2、 The Photoelectric Effect 光電效應
E=hv=KE+ W
→ KE=hu-W
☆
功函數.
射出电子的
動能
(光子的能量愈大,射
出电子動能愈大
3、The Dual Nature of the Electron. 电子的二象性.
- +421 8 6 7 + 3y blith standing wave.
- 波長長度需符合,車軌道周長才不會被抵消。
h
→波可以表達出粒子性質、
>) =
m mass
你
粒子特性.
u: velocity速度.
三皮特性
4、Bohr's theory of the hydrogen atom 波爾氢原子模型.
△原子在氣相加熱後顯現線狀光譜,有特定波長(emission spectra 放射光譜)
氢你中电子税核做圓周運動,向心力由库角力提供.
心在特定車軌道上不皮質子吸走→电子能量量子化
e
-
△E=RM(菸一)=O(RM里德堡/芮德拍常數=2.18×10tJ)
5. Quantum Mechanics 量子力学.
Rydbery constant
Bohr's theory 不足 → Heisenberg uncertainty principle 海森堡不確定原理.
粒子的位置,力量不可能同時被確定
Schrodinger Wave Equation 薛丁格波動方程式
用Wave function 波函數4描述電子的粒子與波本質([
电子能量
(电子在空間中机率)
(對H精確,但也可用於多电子原子

ページ11:

6. Quantum Numbers (+ $2. (h, I, me, ms)
主量子基數(M)
distance of e- from
principal quantum number
nucleus.
角量子夢數(e) angular momentum
quantum number
shape of the volume of
h=1.2.3.4
l=0~3
Space
that the e- occupies s.pidif.
磁量子數(MU
orientation of the
orbital in space
-l.....
-1,0,1,... e-1, l
maghetic quantum number
(自旋量子數(ms)
spin quantum number.
7. Atomic orbital原子軌域
S
-
P
3412y+
15
2px
8
25
35.
2py
y
hay = 1/2 or 1/2.
2pz
3dxz
zdyz
3482
y
49
57
3dxy
15, 25, 2p, 35, 3p. 45.
△
.軌或能量.
18
ES
55
sp
ES
4
Double A

ページ12:

8. Electron Configuration 电子組態
电子在原子的不同軌道分布情況.
2
△顺久性。(若三个电子占據同一軌道则它們必須相反方向百款)
Paramagnetic 順磁性
N
N
Diamagnetic 友兹性.
S
~
N
(个)
(个)
(V)
->
para maghetic.
J. Li
s
(个)
1V 1
15² 25'
Pauli Exclusion Principle
包立不相容原理
Hund's Rule
=
电子填入相同 subshell時會先以相同
洪德定則
自旋方式填入,半填滿後才允許及方向進入
-building up principle :所能階高低填入
遞漸原理

ページ13:

1.The Ionic bond
The covalent bond.
electrostatic force 靜电力 holds ions together in 離子化合物.
[ Flectrostatic (Lactic ) Energy Do & AE.
固体高離子化合物→氣体離子Imole所需的能量
Ex
Eα 9+9+0+ -
☆晶格能愈大,離化合物慰稳定
= k.
r.
晶格能的確定: Born - Haber Cycle 波恩-哈柏循環.
cig. Litig, + F (9)
解病H3↑
Li(g)
昇華↑
↓Hi电子親力
+ F(g)
↑△HI分解
Li (s) + F₂ (9)
)+2(g)
Li F(s)
2. The covalent bond
△ 共用电子以滿足 Octet rule 八隅体法則
:FOF:
雙鍵
ENN
single bond
dobule bond
bond length.
triple bond.
triple < double s single bond
3. Electronegativity 電負度(陰電性).
4. Formal charge 形式電荷.
A
△e:原子个电子數-芸用电子-芝用电子
0
白电荷愈小愈好
上
Ⓒ negative Fc ft FJ EN DR + + Rx L.
Double A

ページ14:

5.八隅体規則的例外.
不完整:中心原子电子數量18
Odd- Electron Molecules 奇數电子分子
Expanded octet: 中心原子電子28.
6. Bond Enthalpy 鍵焓. (BE)
△打破Imole氣体分子→焓值變化.
双原子分子
H2(g) → H(g)+H(g)
Hcleg) → H(g)+Cl(g)
- 平均鏈:每種不同分子中相同的鍵
相的鏘焓的平均值.
(triple> double> single bond)
△H=EBE (reactants) - EBE (products)
吸收能量-放出能量
多原子分子
H20(g) → H(g) + OH(g)
OH(g) → H(g) + O(g)
(由拉化学环境变化,第
Double A

ページ15:

人
Molecular Geometry, Hybridization of atomic orbitals.
Molecular Geometry 分子幾何.
VSEPR模型規則(一双鍵,參鍵可家筆章一樣處理.
.若,个分子有多個共振結構,VSEPR可用於任何一個
形式电荷通常不顯示.
2.
→中心原子上下
(电子对數形式
無lone pairs 分子
形式
lone pairs t
2
ABL
eig. Bellz..
B-A-B
Liher
120
B
Trigonal
3
AB4
planar
ABLE
Bent
A、弯曲形
B
平面三角形
B
109.5°
4
AB4
味
Tetrahedral
AB2EL
SB四面体形.
B
B
ABE
Beht
Trigonal
pyramidal
三角錐型
B
5
ABS
90° eig. pcls
B.
TB Trigonal
AB4E
bipyramidal
AB3EL
120'
雙三角錐
/
distorted
ABE; tetrahedral
B
T-shaped.
(蹺蹺板形)
eg. 5F4
B
Lihear
=^ eig. 1;
B
e.g. 5F6
AB5E
Octahedral
6.
AB
正八面体
|AB4E2
B
Square
Pyramidal
Square
Plannar
四角錐形平面(字)形
Double A

ページ16:

偶極矩 Dipole Moments
1. 8+ +
→ 5
21
測量偶極矩(M) M=Qxr 电荷大小單位:德拜debye(D)
r問距
ID=3,336×10-30℃.m
3、可區分異構物
CIR
H
C=C
M=1.890
Valence Bond Theory ↑鍵理論
M=0.
4
描述共价建的形成[
VB竹鍵理論
molecular orbital (Mo)分子軌道理論
假設所有电子維持在原有軌道上與其他原子進行反應形成共行文章
- 當共價鍵形成時呈現最低位能.
@ 00
0
→ 距離
不同原
→原子核吸引其他原子的电子.
f的
相互排斥
→共竹章形成
三混成 Hybridization.
4
結論「不適用於算独原子
至少三个不等原子轨道混合
.產生的混成軌域數量=參與混成的原子數量.
-混成需輸入能量,但在过程中会收回更多能量。
共价鍵由混成+(未)混成形成
Double A

ページ17:

Holecular orbital theory 分子軌域理論(Mo)
△化学键形成來自分子軌域(不在原有原子軌道上)
軌域
Pir18X
電子雲在重建
上下,吸斥力弱
1. 62p./σap*
1.1S(H+)
文章吉軌域
zp.
E个(原)
(分)
(破坏
15
性干涉入
截面
52p*
四- (Antibonding)
Z
015
(建設性)
Tuzp
干涉)
文章結軌域
rap
(穩定)
21 25
625
25
21 TLP/12p.
Tezp
2px-2 Px Tuzp
28+22
9000
28-283
2px+2px
-> 截面一
Z
E
△填入規則
A
LUHo:Lowest Unoccupied Mo
→ Homo: Highest Occupied Mo
#從下往上填
△鍵設計算(鍵結車軌域电子多數-未章結車軌域電+x)
(Bond order)
> Bond order愈高愈穩定
△第二週期双原子分子
(Liz, BeL, O2, F2)
2P
Ozp與2P能階翻轉对調.(B2、C2、Nz)
原子為太小,25反革喆电子云
152p
21 不夠縮到裡面,625,
Ozp
疊在一起。→排斥力>op能量↑
(順磁性).
E
-+x
e.g. Oz.
44 44
未配對e→自由基
4b
电子同方向自旋,平行產生磁矩
→在強磁場中受吸引
25
Double A

ページ18:

ㅿ結論「Mo總數:原子軌道總數
·Bonding orbital +, £, Antibonding orbital 1-1, ½.
·照Hyund定則填入电子.
Mob e =
原子軌域一
賣數量
Double A

ページ19:

Sixth Edition
GENERAL CHEMISTRY
The Essential Concepts
Raymond Chang
Jason Overby